Confusion and games: An investigation on the Player Learning Experience

Video games are software systems carefully designed to provide a particular experience. Many games are designed for an optimal flow experience following practices on clear goals, immediate feedback, and difficulty well-adjusted to player competence. However, there is one experience that cannot be avoided and, as this dissertation will argue, should not be diminished: the player learning experience. Tutorials, especially in complex games, help guide players with minimal confusion and frustration, ensuring they experience the game as intended. Game design can be evaluated through play-tests to identify design elements that interrupt the flow experience and can cause unfavourable experiences, such as confusion or frustration. However, breaking the flow experience by introducing con-fusion should not necessarily be considered an unfavourable experience if done correctly. Studies on emotions related to complex learning have shown that confusion can be a pos-itive experience that signals learning, enhances engagement by stimulating arousal, and potentially prevents boredom.
In this dissertation, we investigate the experience of confusion in learning games and in puzzle games, and compare the experience with the experience of learning. Three studies are presented. The first investigates the possibilities of rule generation as a means to adapt games with possible cognitive impasses, the second study collected observational data on the expressed emotions of children engaging with playful learning games. The last study collects and compares self-reported emotions during play with a post-game play experience survey, focusing particularly on experiences related to flow, such as mastery, curiosity, and immersion. The results show that adding the possibility to select up to two emotional labels related to affect dynamics (engagement, confusion, frustration, and boredom) can potentially enable proactive guidance to manage confusion and prevent unwanted frustration.
The cognitive theory of Predictive Processing is introduced as a theoretical framework to explain how learning, playing, and games as a means to reduce uncertainty faster than expected are related to enjoyment and fun. Confusion is analysed in relation to the theory of Predictive Processing as a possible signal for subjective prediction error and a mediator for enjoyment. The implications on game design are discussed through the lens of Predictive Processing by investigating concepts of uncertainty for games and the reduction thereof. The studies show that confusion has a more nuanced effect on the player experience than simply an unwanted experience and that future research is required to better understand the intricacies of confusion in video games.